SUDAN II AND SUDAN III DYE ADULTERATION IN GARRI AND PALM OIL FROM THE NIGER DELTA: OCCURRENCE, RISKS, AND ANALYTICAL EVIDENCE

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Abstract

Garri and palm oil are widely consumed staple foods in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. In recent years, concerns have emerged over the adulteration of these products with synthetic azo dyes, particularly Sudan II and Sudan III, which are banned for use in foods due to their toxic and carcinogenic potential. This review examines available scientific evidence on the contamination of garri and palm oil with Sudan II and Sudan III dyes. Emphasis is placed on reported occurrence levels, sources of contamination, analytical detection techniques, and associated health risks. Both conventional and modern analytical methods, including spectroscopic and chromatographic approaches, are reviewed. Existing studies indicate sporadic but concerning detection of Sudan dyes in market samples of palm oil and garri, often linked to intentional colour enhancement and poor regulatory enforcement. While analytical advances such Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) spectroscopy combined with chemometric analysis show promise for rapid screening. Analytical methods such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Ultraviolet detection (HPLCUV), Liquid Chromatography with mass spectrometry (LCMS), and UVvisible spectrophotometry have proven effective for detection and quantification of these contaminants in food matrices. while chromatographic techniques remain critical for confirmatory analysis. Public awareness and regulatory monitoring remain limited. The continued presence of these dyes in staple foods poses significant food safety and public health challenges in the Niger Delta. Strengthened surveillance, adoption of rapid screening tools, and improved regulatory enforcement are essential to mitigate the risks associated with Sudan dye adulteration in garri and palm oil.